Minimum detectable signal

Minimum Detectable Signal. If the echo signal has minimum power, detecting that signal by the Radar is known as minimum detectable signal. This means, Radar cannot detect the echo signal if that signal is having less power than that of minimum power. In general, Radar receives the echo signal in addition with noise.

The lower the frequency, the longer the range. However, the lower the frequency, the lower the data rate it can support. As a result, selecting a radio spectrum comes with tradeoffs between range and data rate. Bluetooth ® technology uses the 2.4 GHz ISM spectrum band (2400 to 2483.5 MHz), which enables a good balance between range and throughput.In the analytical techniques based on X-rays, e.g. EDS, the smallest detectable elemental concentration and the minimum number of detectable atoms, which correspond to the smallest X-ray signal that can be measured above the background, are usually defined as the minimum mass fraction (MMF) and the minimum detectable mass (MDM), respectively.. For instance, the sensitivities of analytical ...How high could the prf be if the purpose is to observe the echoes from the moon's front half? d. If an antenna with a diameter of 60 ft and aperture efficiency of 0.6 were used at a frequency of 430 MHz with a receiver having a minimum detectable signal of 1.5 × 1 0 − 16 W, what peak power is required? Does your answer surprise you; and if ...The minimal detectable elemental concentration, which requires some signal averaging, is approximately 0.1 mmol per kg of dry specimen (i.e., 10 ppm), whereas spatial resolution ranges from about 10 nm to a few micrometers. 1,10 Reducing the detection limit requires more counts, which can be obtained by increasing the counting time and /or the ...To determine the minimum detectable pressure limit of our BBP-MX-AG sensor, acoustic waves were employed as another external pressure stimulus that could be rapidly transmitted to and directly ...

We discuss the noise terms and compare the minimal detectable signal to that of soft cantilevers. Atomic resolution of muscovite mica was achieved in various liquids: H 2 O, Tris buffer and a cell ...Our new algorithms improve the dynamic range and minimum detectable signal by more than 75 % and an improved pulse rate that doubles both the resolvable acoustic frequency and the distortion-free acoustic amplitude. Reliability. ... Outstanding signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) accompanied by a world-leading measurement range for phase-based systems ...2.4 Minimum detectable velocity (MDV) 2.5 Area search rate. 2.6 Stand-off distance. 2.7 Coverage area size (breadth and depth) 2.8 Coverage area revisit rate. 3 See also. ... By storing the phase signal, instead of the original analog signal, or video, and comparing the stored and current signal for changes in phase, the moving targets are ...(c)Sketch the received echo signal power as a function of range from 10 to 80 nmi. a) Given Average Transmitter power ,Pavg = 200W Pulse width , Pulse Repitition frequency = 1000Hz so Pulse Repitition Time , T = 1/1000 = 1milli second. Peak power of a Radar is given by : b) Given Radar Cross Section, Power of minimum detectable signal ,interval (3 min) if S < 161. The minimal detectable counts (MDC) is 28 counts above background, and the minimum detectable activity (MDA) is (using Eq. 3): MDA = 28 = 86 Bq = 2.3 nCi 180 sec x (1.8 x 10'3) It is also important to realize that if the patient count in a particular counting interval is Jess than smin• it cannot be con­Given our non-detection of technosignatures, we place limits on the detection of narrowband signals from Prox Cen by calculating the minimum detectable EIRP (EIRP min). The EIRP min is given byThe receiver minimum detectable signal is Smin= 10 13 W. Q2. A ground-based air-surveillance radar operates at a frequency of 1300 MHz (L band). Its. maximum range is 200 nmi for the detection of a target with a radar cross section of one. square meter (σ =1 m2). Its antenna is 12 m wide by 4 m high, and the antenna aperture.

Minimum Detectable Signal Makes sense! If the input signal power is too small, it will be “buried” by the receiver noise. We call this minimum input signal power the Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS)—a.k.a the Minimum Discernable Signal. I.E., Pin > MDS for accurate demodulation The maximum range R max of a radar occurs when the received signal P r = S min, the minimum detectable signal. The minimum detectable signal is a statistical quantity limited by receiver noise. It can be written as A method for weak microwave signal detection based on microwave photonics-enabled single-photon technology is proposed and experimentally demonstrated, showing signal waveform and the minimum detectable signal is as low as -112.8 dBm without electrical amplifications.Question: 8. Over the RF frequency range the emission prediction by Planck's Law can be reduced to the much simpler form in power, P = KTB, where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is absolute temperature in degrees K and B is bandwidth in Hz. Assuming this power level represents a minimum detectable signal (MDS) level that a receiver can properly ...radiant power that produces a signal-to-noise ratio of unity at the output of a given optical detector at a given data-signaling rate or modulation frequency, operating wavelength, and effective noise bandwidth. Some manufacturers and authors define NEP as the minimum detectable power per square root bandwidth [W/Hz 1/2].”

Rune factory 4 medicine recipes.

Importantly, the concepts of dynamic reserve and dynamic range are distinct. The dynamic range refers to the ratio between the maximum and minimum detectable signal by the instrument; for lock-in amplifiers, however, the more relevant specification happens to be the dynamic reserve. Demodulation Bandwidth and Time ConstantA 2f/1f signal processing technique with harmonic waveform recognition method is proposed. The proposed method is used in the methane near-infrared laser remote detection system to solve the instability problems caused by the amplitude fluctuation and the deformation of the harmonic signal during the methane remote …A receiver is said to be operating linearly if a one dB increase in input signal power results in a one dB increase in IF output signal strength. See our page on dynamic range. Minimum detectable signal The MDS is calculated, not measured. It is a function of receiver noise figure and instantaneous bandwidth. See our page on dynamic range.particular interest to receiver designers as the the minimum detectable signal is dependant on the Noise Figure as follows: MDS(dBm) =−174+10Log(B) +NF(dB) + Required SNR dB (Eq 3) This approximation assumes the background kTB) noise is that due to a passive or ambient (= device held at T = 290K, and the Required SNRSignal Processing Stack Exchange is a question and answer site for practitioners of the art and science of signal, image and video processing. ... Here, we define the dynamic range of an imaging system to be the ratio of the maximum measurable intensity to the minimum detectable intensity level in the system. As a rule, ...The minimal detectable signal, V min (in V), must be above the receiver noise level and have a minimum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) to be detected. In most radar detection applications, an SNR of 8 dB is required ( Erst, 1985 ).

The SNR is defined in terms of the ADC's full-scale input level and the minimum detectable signal: The minimum detectable signal is typically limited by the noise floor. Since fully-differential inputs have 2 times the full-scale input voltage level and have superior DC and AC common-mode rejection (which manifest themselves as noise), SNR ... It is defined as the minimum signal optical power level required at the receiver to achieve a certain BER performance. ... Compared with the direct detection case discussed at the end of Section 4.4.2 in which the minimum detectable power level was -63 dBm, the OTDR with coherent detection has more than three orders of magnitude sensitivity ...Estimate the value of a minimum detectable signal (MDS) of a spectrum analyser with a NF of 40 dB, using a 1 kHz 3-dB filter. Answer: The simplest and most intuitive method of measuring phase noise is to connect the oscillator to a high-quality spectrum analyzer. The power of the carrier is measured and a measurement of the power spectral ...radiant power that produces a signal-to-noise ratio of unity at the output of a given optical detector at a given data-signaling rate or modulation frequency, operating wavelength, and effective noise bandwidth. Some manufacturers and authors define NEP as the minimum detectable power per square root bandwidth [W/Hz 1/2].”The minimum detectable signal is defined as a signal whose average is equal to the baseline noise. This represents a signal to noise ratio of 1. The dynamic range specification for a single acquisition is reported at the shortest integration time giving the highest possible dynamic range. The maximum range R max of a radar occurs when the received signal P r = S min, the minimum detectable signal. The minimum detectable signal is a statistical quantity limited by receiver noise. It can be written as Example: Calculate the maximum range of a radar with the following characteristics: transmitted power 58 MW, antenna aperture 13 sq. m, frequency 3.3 GHz, target radar cross-section (RCS) 0.03 sq. m, minimum detectable signal power 5×10 –12 W. Question: 1.5 A radar mounted on an automobile is to be used to determine the distance to a vehicle trav eling directly in front of it. The radar operates at a frequency of 9375 MHz (X band) with a pulse width of 10 ns (10s).The maximum range is to be 500 ft. a. What is the pulse repetition frequency that corresponds to a range of 500 ft?The minimum detectable signal is defined as a signal whose average is equal to the baseline noise. This represents a signal to noise ratio of 1. The dynamic range specification for a single acquisition is reported at the shortest integration time giving the highest possible dynamic range. This refers to an unmodulated carrier signal that uses almost no bandwidth; in case of real signals using a given bandwidth, this definition may not be enough since a smaller receiver bandwidth allows a weaker minimum detectable signal, but S-points are still a good tool for comparing received signals. S-points for frequencies below 30 MHz: ...We discuss the noise terms and compare the minimal detectable signal to that of soft cantilevers. Atomic resolution of muscovite mica was achieved in various liquids: H 2 O, Tris buffer and a cell ...

Maximum Detectable Range Form of Search Radar Equation. The maximum detectable range form of the search radar equation, R, is: R = [ P a v A t s σ F 2 F c 4 π k T s ( S N R) L a 2 L Ω] 1 / 4. where the terms of the equation are: Pav — Average transmit power in watts. A — Antenna effective aperture in square meters.

Expert Answer. 1.6 Determine (a) the peak power (watts) and (b) the antenna physical area (m²) which make the cost of the following radar a minimum: Frequency: 1230 MHz (L band) Antenna aperture efficiency: 0.6 Receiver minimum detectable signal: 3 x 10-13 W Unit cost of transmitter: $2.20 per watt of peak power Unit cost of antenna: $1400 per ...power that results in a signal-to-noise ratio (S/R) of 1 in a 1 Hz output bandwidth [2]. For detectors, such as photodetectors, the NEP expresses the sensitivity of the device and is given in Watts per square root of Hertz (W/√Hz). Essentially, the NEP expresses the minimum detectable power per square root bandwidth of a givenMinimum Signal (cont) For wireless data, B ˘10MHz: P in = 10dB + 10dB 174dB + 70dB = 84dBm We see that the noise gure has a dB for dB impact on the minimum detectable input signal. Since the received power drops >20dB per decade of distance, a few dB improved NF may dramatically improve the coverage area of a communication link.associated with a transducer's intrinsic losses, the minimum detectable signal force is independent of frequency. By contrast, the sensitivity (e.g. volts per unit signal force) is known to be a strong function of frequency, with the principal peak being at the plate's fundamental thickness resonance. The results are explained by show-A minimum detectable signal is a signal at the input of a system whose power allows it to be detected over the background electronic noise of the detector system. It can alternately be defined as a signal that produces a signal-to-noise ratio of a given value m at the output. In practice, m is usually chosen to be greater than unity. The minimal detectable counts (MDC) is 28 counts above background, and the minimum detectable activity (MDA) is (using Eq. 3): MDA = 28 = 86 Bq = 2.3 nCi 180 sec x (1.8 x 10'3) It is also important to realize that if the patient count in a particular counting interval is Jess than smin• it cannot be con­ cluded that no activity is present.Thermal resolution (minimum detectable temperature difference) is the boundary ratio of the observed object signal to the background signal, considering the noise of a thermal imaging sensor. High thermal resolution means that a thermal imaging device can detect an object with a certain temperature against a background with a similar temperature.Engineering. Electrical Engineering. Electrical Engineering questions and answers. 7. (10 points) 3 GHz radar system requires a minimum signal to noise ratio at the detector of 7dB. The radar has a peak transmit power of 1 kW, an antenna gain of 30 dB, and a range resolution of 30 m. No integration of pulse returns is used.If the minimum detectable signal in the radio is − 80 dBm, the required signal to noise ratio is 15 dB, and the maximum power level at the image frequency is − 30 dBm how much image rejection is required? 3 marks (c) Give an example of how two unwanted channels in this radio band could be harmful to receiving channel 5 if the radio is not ...

Kansas women's tennis.

Example of grant application.

The minimum detectable signal power level.-100: dBm* *std. unit is W (-∞, +∞) resolution. Defines the type of filter used to simulate the analyzer resolution bandwidth. ... This is the minimum number of new data values available at the element input port that will trigger the element update. 1024 - [0, +∞)In an effort to increase DPR signal fidelity associated with snowfall, this paper proposes a simple algorithm using matched DPR Ku/Ka radar reflectivities producing an increase of the fraction of snowfall mass detected by DPR up to 59%. ... (2012) showed minimum detectable reflectivity values of 14.53/16.32 ...Joined Feb 4, 2008. 4,843. Jan 16, 2009. #6. According to the explanation of KL7AJ: dynamic range=saturation signal/minimum detectable signal. Convert 81dB in a normal number, say A, and then multiply A by 0.55nW to get the maximum input Watts allowed. Not open for further replies.Detection limit. The limit of detection (LOD or LoD) is the lowest signal, or the lowest corresponding quantity to be determined (or extracted) from the signal, that can be observed with a sufficient degree of confidence or statistical significance. However, the exact threshold (level of decision) used to decide when a signal significantly ...Explanation: The noise power will determine the minimum detectable signal level of the receiver for a given transmitter power, maximum range of a communication link. There is a limit on the maximum noise that can be associated with a signal in spite of which the signal can be recovered from the noise. 2. Equivalent noise temperature of a ...Modern digital microwave radio systems provide very high throughput with low latency and high availability making them ideal for a wide range of connectivity requirements, including: CCTV backhaul, mobile cell -site backhaul, high-frequency trading, corporate connectivity, Internet access and more can all be addressed with wireless solutions.Compute the peak power, the pulse width, and the minimum detectable signal for this radar. Assume target RCS 6 = 10m², the single pulse SNR is 15.4dB , noise figure F = 5dB, temperature To = 290K, and maximum range Rmax = 150Km. 1.16. Repeat Example 1.4 with P, = 1MW, G = 40dB, and 6 = 0.5m 1.17. Show that the DC component is the dominant ...everything RF has created a series of RF calculators to help engineers and students with common calculations that they need to conduct frequently. These radio frequency calculators help with unit conversion, attenuator design, antenna design, radars, and various other basic calculators. ….

maximum unambiguous range. The maximum range from which a transmitted radar, lidar, or sodar pulse can be reflected and received before the next pulse is transmitted. This range, rmax, is given by rmax = cT /2, where T is the interpulse period and c is the speed of light (or speed of sound in the case of sodar). Range is measured by the time ...B. Compute the noise figure of the receiver cascade. C. If the last stage has a 1 MHz noise bandwidth, and the receiver sensitivity is 15 dB above thermal noise, what is the minimum detectable signal level in decibels above a milliwatt? D. How does the minimum detectable signal change if the noise figure of the first stage is reduced to 2 dB?The detectable signal reaches its minimum at values N LO ≈ 10 4 -10 5 for both types of the detectors. The minima of the MDS is about 1.8-2.3 times the photon energy and close to MDS = 1 for ...A minimum detectable signal is a signal at the input of a system whose power allows it to be detected over the background electronic noise of the detector system. It can alternately be defined as a signal that produces a signal-to-noise ratio of a given value m at the output. In practice, m is usually chosen to be greater than unity."Minimum Detectable Velocity" (MDV). However, if a target is located left or right of the beam centerline, then it's shift may need to be more or less than the MDV in order to appear in the exo-clutter region. MDV Targets > MDV can sometimes be missed, and Targets < MDV can sometimes be detected. GMTI Range‐Doppler Map 25 In any case ...Noise figure and minimum detectable signal Home. Forums. Education. Homework Help. Noise figure and minimum detectable signal. Thread starter baby_2; Start date Jan 7, 2017; Search Forums; New Posts; B. Thread Starter. baby_2. Joined Jan 6, 2017 11. Jan 7, 2017 #1 Hello Here is my circuit that I want to calculate minimum Si ...1. Interfering signals Other signals present in the frequency band of interest can impact the strength of the target RF signal. Depending on the extent of interference and the …The Minimum detectable signal (MDS) is the minimum power level that can be processed by a receiver to provide a relevant output. It is also known as the noise floor of the system. It can also be defined as the input signal power required to give a …Having the total noise present in our signal, we can determine the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in an AC application or the minimum detectable signal in a measurement application. The important point here is that the noise model allows us to easily consider the effect of the quantization process on the noise performance of the system. Minimum detectable signal, The minimum detectable signal depends on the signal/noise ratio (SNR), the signal being determined by L and V E and the noise depending on the measurement time. Conversely, given a desired level of optical power to be sensed, the size of the CLIPP (i.e. L ) can be reduced according to the minimum SNR required for the detection., In a gain compression curve of a radio receiver, the SFDR is the area between the minimum detectable signal level and the point where the third-order product (noise) exceeds the minimum detection level. Usually, SFDR is measured in dBc (i.e., with reference to the carrier signal amplitude). Gain compression curve, the number of net counts that is corresponding to the minimum detectable true activityisgiven as Background not known a priori 121. NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2021 Chapter 3: Counting Statistics False Negative and Minimum True Count Rate 122. NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2021 ..., Shipborne radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shorelines and other ships. It is also used to observe aircraft iii. Airborne radar is used to detect other aircraft, ships and land vehicles. It is also used for mapping of terrain and avoidance of thunderstorms and terrain., The reference is the minimum detectable signal level at the input of a receiver, which can be calculated through a knowledge of the noise figure and the input signal bandwidth of the receiver or the system. The difference between this value and the input level which will produce distortion products equal to the minimum detectable signal ..., At the end of the program, I created the graph below that shows the minimal detectable size or smallest sample size for a given power level such as 80% marked by the dashed line.For example, to be able to detect an effect size of 1.0-1.5 with 80% power (80% of the time we can find such effect) , we'd need a sample size at least 500., Receiver sensitivity is the strength of the weakest signal that a radio receiver can detect and demodulate. It is typically specified in dBm, Watt or microvolt. It is also referred to as Minimum Detectable Signal …, associated with a transducer's intrinsic losses, the minimum detectable signal force is independent of frequency. By contrast, the sensitivity (e.g. volts per unit signal force) is known to be a strong function of frequency, with the principal peak being at the plate's fundamental thickness resonance. The results are explained by show-, The receiver minimum detectable signal is Smin= 10-" W. Determine the following: (a)Antenna effective aperture A, (square meters) and antenna gain G [numerically and in dB, where G (in dB) 10 logo G (as a numeric)]. (b)Peak transmitter power (C)Pulse repetition frequency to achieve a maximum unambiguous range of 200 nmi. ..., The rumours, which rapidly spread further than the cybersecurity community into the wider public, claimed that the Signal encrypted messaging app contained a flaw …, b) Find the input signal power needed to obtain SNR of 6dB. c) If a pre-amplifier of gain 7dB and noise figure of 3dB is inserted between the antenna and the receiver, what is the minimum detectable signal V min for obtaining the output SNR of 10dB. Assuming that the source resistance is due to a 50Ω coaxial cable with negligible loss and, A least upper bound for the minimum detectable signal of a receiving system whose input is a periodic wave form plus interference is specified in terms of the first and second moments of the rectified output. Also, it is shown that the power spectrum of the rectified output (together with the impedance characteristic of the output meter) serves ..., The smallest incoming signal that will be detected, and produce a ... Since the minimum detectable backscattered power and the MDS are equivalent (and very ..., Minimum discernible signal values of conventional radar systems used by the NWS indicated in the table below... As for the WSR-88D, the useable MDS nas been calculated the be in the area of -112 dBm (6.3 1015 w). This is a preliminary figure, and is subject to change, based upon the characteristics of the production radar systems., The Maximum Range of Radar formula is defined by several parameters, including the size of the radar antenna and the frequency of the signal used and is represented as R t = ((P trns * G trns * σ * A eff)/(16*pi^2* S min))^0.25 or Target Range = ((Transmitted Power * Transmitted Gain * Cross Section Area of Radar * Effective Area of Receiving Antenna)/(16*pi^2* Minimum Detectable Signal))^0.25 ., Equation. Range = 4√ P rσc2G2 r (4π)3f 2 OP min R a n g e = P r σ c 2 G r 2 ( 4 π) 3 f O 2 P m i n 4. Where: P r P r = power output of the radar (W) σ σ = radar cross section (m 2) c c = speed of light = 299, 792, 458 m / s. Gr G r = radar antenna gain. f 0 f 0 = radar signal frequency. P min P m i n = minimum detectable power (W), Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS) The minimum receivable power (P e min) for a given receiver is important because the minimum receivable power is one of the factors which determine the maximum range performance of the radar. The sensitivity level MDS has got a value of 10-13 Watts ( -100 dBm) for a typical radar receiver., A 2f/1f signal processing technique with harmonic waveform recognition method is proposed. The proposed method is used in the methane near-infrared laser remote detection system to solve the instability problems caused by the amplitude fluctuation and the deformation of the harmonic signal during the methane remote …, The term minimum detectable effect is restricted to scenarios when examining the power property of an already defined test is interesting at specific power levels. It should prevent most confusions that arise when used in planning of statistical tests and leaves room for the term MDE in situations where an “effect of interest” is not ..., The term sensitivity is occasionally misused to refer to the minimum detectable signal, i.e. the sensor's detectivity or threshold, which , incidentally, equals the noise floor of the sensor. 1.2.2. Threshold and detectivity No sensor will respond to arbitrarily small signals. Signals in the range between zero and the, This paper deals with the minimum detection range versus maximum signal to noise ratio (SNR) for several choices parameters like (peak power percent, radar cross section (RCS), antenna gain ..., The first microbalance was a 5 MHz commercial AT-cut (QSense) quartz microbalance that showed 1 Hz/ng sensitivity with minimum detectable signal (MDS) of 1 ng. The second sensor was a 10 MHz AT ..., Mechanical Engineering. Mechanical Engineering questions and answers. A pulse radar operating at 10 GHz has an antenna with a gain of 28 dB and a transmitter power of 2 Kw. If it is defined to detect a target with a cross section of 12 m2 and minimum detectable signal is -40 dB. What is the maximum range of the radar ?, If the echo signal is having the power less than the power of the minimum detectable signal, then Radar cannot detect the target since it is beyond the maximum limit of the Radar's range. Therefore, we can say that the range of the target is said to be maximum range when the received echo signal is having the power equal to that of minimum ... , The implemented IC achieved 59-nW active power consumption, 25-fA/count resolution, and a 59-fA minimum detectable signal (MDS) using a calibrated optical source. The IC was then integrated with other system components into a battery-powered wireless ingestible capsule measuring just 6.5 mm thick $\times $ 12 mm diameter. We demonstrated ..., The SNR is defined in terms of the ADC's full-scale input level and the minimum detectable signal: The minimum detectable signal is typically limited by the noise floor. Since fully-differential inputs have 2 times the full-scale input voltage level and have superior DC and AC common-mode rejection (which manifest themselves as noise), SNR ..., 20 Şub 2012 ... (Also called minimum detectable signal.) A received radio signal (or radar echo) with power just above the noise level of the receiver., Digital down-conversion is a digital-signal-processing technique that is widely used in digital radio receivers. This article will review the basics of a digital down-converter (DDC). We’ll first look at the advantages of using a DDC rather than its analog counterpart. Then, we’ll discuss an example and explore the basic operation of a DDC., The receiver minimum detectable signal is 0.1 pW. Determine: (a) Antenna effective aperture and antenna. A ground-based air-surveillance radar operates at a frequency of 1300 MHz (L-band). Its maximum range is 200 km for the detection of a target with a radar cross-section of 10 m^2. Its antenna is 12 m wide by 4 m high, and the aperture ..., The minimum detectable signal is 2%×10×10 −9 atm-cc/sec=2×10 −10 atm-cc/sec. Using the sensitivity calculated in Ex. 1 and Eq. (6-2): The minimum detectable signal is often greater than the 2% of full scale, of the most sensitive scale, because the leak detector system’s properties do not support the 2%. , The statistical nature of the minimum detectable signal determined by receiver noise. Fluctuations and uncertainty in radar cross-section. The losses throughout the radar system. Propagation effects caused by the earth's surface and atmosphere. Because of statistical nature of receiver noise and target cross section, the maximum radar range ..., The minimum detectable signal (MDS) is usually assumed to be just above the system noise floor and the maximum signal level is the largest peak power without distortion. Unlike gain or noise figure, dynamic range cannot be improved using amplification, but the window can be moved to suit higher or lower signals. ..., The purpose of front-end electronics and signal processingsystems is to 1.Acquire an electrical signal from the sensor. Typically this is a short current pulse. 2. Tailor the time response of the system to optimize a) the minimum detectable signal (detect hit/no hit), b) energy measurement, c) event rate, d) time of arrival (timing measurement),